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Defining ageism
Do you remember the ageist 'Paddy Power' advertisement earlier in this learning object?
The term ‘ageism’ is thought to have been first used in the mass media in the late 1960s, having been coined by the American psychiatrist, Robert Butler. Since then, as the idea has become established, there have been a number of formal definitions with slightly different emphases.
Ageism can be found in attitudes, practices and institutions. It’s important to consider carefully what is meant by the concept if you are to understand the ways in which it disadvantages older people.
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Defining ageism
Let's define 'ageism' now. Read the 3 definitions below.
What do you think are the common themes in these definitions?
What are the main differences between them?
Butler and Lewis
‘Ageism can be seen as a process of systematic stereotyping and discrimination against people because they are old, just as racism and sexism accomplish this for skin colour and gender’ (Butler and Lewis, 1973, p.30)
Hughes and Mtezuka
[Ageism is] the social process through which negative images of and attitudes towards older people, based solely on the characteristics of age itself, results in discrimination.’ (Hughes and Mtezuka, 1992, p.220)
Bytheway and Johnson
- Ageism is a set of beliefs originating in the biological variation between people and relating to the ageing process.
- It is in the actions of corporate bodies, what is said and done by their representatives, and the resulting views that are held by ordinary ageing people, that ageism is made manifest.
In consequence of this it follows that:
- Ageism generates and reinforces a fear and denigration of the ageing process, and stereotyping presumptions regarding competence and the need for protection.
- In particular, ageism legitimates the use of chronological age to mark out classes of people who are systematically denied resources and opportunities that others enjoy, and who suffer the consequences of such denigration, ranging from well-meaning patronage to unambiguous vilification.
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Defining ageism
Suggested Answer
Common themes:
All three definitions emphasise the discriminatory aspects of ageism. They also suggest that ageism results from prejudice based on stereotypes, on negative images and attitudes towards age.
Differences:
- The Butler and Lewis (1) and Hughes and Mtezuka (2) definitions suggest ageism is a 'process'.
- Bytheway and Johnson (3) argue that is it based on ‘beliefs’ about biological ageing.
- Bytheway and Johnson (3) imply that ageism is an ideology – that is, a set of beliefs that justify the way one social group, usually the dominant one, treats another.
- Bytheway and Johnson (3) suggest ageism is manifested in the views of all of us (‘ordinary ageing people’) and operates against people of all ages (‘marks out classes of all people’).This is an important distinction as young people are demonstrably subject to ageism too – as in remarks like, ‘you’re not old enough yet!’
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Defining ageism
In summary, there are three main aspects of ageism which are inter-connected and can be found in most definitions:
- Prejudicial attitudes towards ageing or older persons, the ageing process and old age
- Discriminatory practices against ageing and older people
- Institutionalised policies and practices that perpetuate stereotypes against older people
(Ray, Sharp, and Abrams, 2006)
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The extent of discrimination
How widespread is ageism? A recent major survey (Age Concern Research Services and University of Kent, 2005) found that age discrimination – a major component of ageism - was the most common form of discrimination in Britain, with 29% of adults of all ages reporting experiences of age discrimination, compared to 24% who mentioned gender, the next most common form of discrimination. Nearly 1 in 3 people surveyed believed that there is more prejudice than 5 years ago.
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Multiple discrimination
Age discrimination may be compounded by other forms of prejudice. An older person may be doubly, triply, or even quadruply discriminated against on the grounds of age, race, gender, sexuality, or any combination of these factors.
In the survey mentioned earlier, whereas people with white and mixed race ethnic backgrounds reported age as the grounds for the prejudice they most frequently encountered, those from Asian and Caribbean backgrounds were much more likely to identify ethnicity or race as the basis for prejudice against them. However, the latter groups were even more likely to have experienced age-related discrimination.
Although women report slightly less age-related prejudice than men, they are more likely to suffer gender prejudice. (Age Concern Research Services and University of Kent, 2005).
Older lesbians, gay men and bisexuals may face injustices because of their sexuality, as well as the double discrimination of ageism and homophobia.
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Perpetuating ageism: stereotypes
How does ageism operate in our culture on a day to day basis?
Popular culture tends to reflect negative stereotypes of older age. Explore the 4 areas of our popular area below and reflect on how negative stereotypes are reinforced:
Birthday cards
Over 2 billion birthday cards are sold in the UK each year and many decry advancing age.
Television
Television comedies frequently exaggerate the perceived characteristics of older people in a way which makes them appear foolish and incompetent, or undesirable (e.g.‘ One Foot in the Grave’; ‘Waiting for God’; ‘Last of the Summer Wine’; ‘Steptoe and Son’ ).
Advertisements
Generally, the media ignores or patronises older people, but examples of television advertisements have been documented which present older people as ridiculous or deeply unattractive in a way that would not be tolerated for other minority groups. (Help the Aged, 2004).
Language
Everyday language also demeans older people through such epithets as ‘old fogy’; ‘old fool’; ‘old maid’; ‘old biddy’; and ‘dirty old man’.
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Perpetuating ageism: stereotypes
But not all stereotypes are negative. We also assign positive attributes to others on the basis of two basic qualities – that of warmth (or friendliness), and that of competence (or capability) (Cuddy and Fiske, 2002).
This results in four distinct types of stereotypes.
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Warm and competent
Stereotypes usually held about groups with high status, who are viewed positively, like white, middle class people in Britain.
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Cold but competent
Higher status groups that represent a threat, or competition, such as British stereotypes of Germans.
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Warm but incompetent
Lower status, but non-competing groups, e.g. women and people with disabilities.
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Cold and incompetent
Lower status groups that are seen as competing for resources, such as asylum seekers.
These kinds of stereotype may apply to older people of different ages, as you will see next.
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Perpetuating ageism: stereotypes
Research has shown that older people are stereotyped as "warm but competent" and younger people as "cold but competent".
Ageism in the UK tends to take the form of ‘benevolent prejudice’ so that ‘older people are stereotyped as friendly, moral and admirable, but less capable and less intelligent’ (Ray, Sharp, and Abrams, 2006).
This ‘warm but incompetent’ view of older people – also called ‘doddery but dear’ - is a form of benevolent prejudice that contrasts with the hostile prejudice when a group is seen as a threat to a way of life (e.g. asylum seekers).
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Benevolent prejudice
‘Benevolent prejudice’ may be positive in tone and less obvious than hostile prejudice, but it still results in disadvantage to the group concerned. It may also be more difficult to challenge because both perpetrator and victim may be unaware that it is occurring.
Can you think of common examples of behaviour towards older people which disadvantages them as a result of this kind of stereotyping?
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Benevolent prejudice
Suggested Answer
- Patronising or inappropriate language which is disrespectful and/or does not treat the older person as fully adult. For example, using ‘baby talk’, endearments, or over-familiar forms of address given the level of acquaintance
- Behaviour which is intended to protect older people but becomes patronising and infantilises them by removing all risk
- Failing to offer choices - for example, in health and social care
- Ignoring an older person’s expressed views or not seeking them
- Enforced or induced retirement and exclusion from employment possibilities
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Benevolent prejudice
Older people are generally stereotyped as ‘warm but incompetent’, rather than through hostile images. They are often stereotyped further as moral and admirable and most people agree that they should be valued, even cherished. There are obvious parallels here with benevolent sexism and another similarity is that the people holding these views may not see themselves as prejudiced. However, the disadvantages for older people (and women) are that the group may find themselves patronised or infantilises. They may also be excluded from social and economic opportunities and from decision-making opportunities and positions (Ray, Sharp and Abrams, 2006).
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The new ageism
One well-intentioned response to ageism, with its stereotyping of older people as incompetent, is to be positive about ageing and to talk only about the achievements of older people. As Bill Bytheway says, in the conclusion to his book ‘Ageism’ (1995), there are many within the ‘old age industry’ who urge this.
Quote from Bytheway
‘There is a certain salvationist zeal in much of this literature. USE IT OR LOSE IT! - there are many slogans. Often writers report that when acquaintances learn that they work with older people, the comment is: it must be depressing. “We must challenge these attitudes!” they proclaim. “We must challenge the negative stereotypes of old age!” They then offer many examples of hearty or heroic elders to add inspiration to the pages that follow.” ‘ (Bytheway, 1995)
Here is one such example of an ‘heroic elder’:
Margaret Scott
Scott is proud of her scuba-diving hobby, so on her 72nd birthday, in keeping with her tradition of “doing something special”, she dived to a depth of 72 feet and, once she had got down there, the odd carp swimming about her weighted ankles, did a spot of knitting. Somebody had told her shortly before that she shouldn’t be diving at her age – she should be doing sensible things. “And that clicked,” she says. “It was a giggle.” (Source: The Guardian, G2, p.14, 12.01.07)
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The new ageism
There’s nothing wrong with older individuals doing something new or taking risks but there are a number of problems with this ideology of ‘anti-ageist positivism’. What do you think these might be?
- It replaces one stereotype about older people (universal incompetence) with another (universal competence). In that respect, it is simply ageism’s reverse image.
- It fails to confront the reality that we all die eventually and that, as we age, possibly many of us will become ill at some time, something for which society needs to plan.
- It simply pushes back the frontiers of ageism by a decade or more as it creates a gulf between the ‘third age’ or ‘young-old’ (55-70), who are seen as:
- fit, active, well-off and fancy free, going on foreign holidays when they’re not on the golf course or in the gym, and the ‘fourth age’ or ‘old-old’, who are seen as:
- frail, impoverished and dependent, failures in the new mission of ‘successful ageing’. (People with dementia and chronic health problems fall into this category.)
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The new ageism
In combating ageism, rather than creating a new stereotype of exceptional or extraordinary older people, perhaps we should be prepared to celebrate ‘the ordinary’: the many older people who get on with their lives in a constructive and positive way despite the losses and depredations which older age can bring. As Bytheway (1995) also says, you can be positive without creating idealized scenarios and unrealistic beliefs.
“The people I work with are pretty ordinary. They have lived long lives and survived many experiences. I like working with them because there are things I can do to make life more satisfactory for them. They tell me what they think and I listen to them and sometimes argue. You can learn a lot from ordinary people. I enjoy the work; it’s worth doing.”